Travel Documents and Border Crossings

Early modern travellers rarely mentioned borders or border crossings in their journals. In the medieval and early modern periods, linear political borders as we might understand them did not align with powers of jurisdiction, taxation and the individual obligations owed to a territorial lord. Borders were difficult to police, and border checks took place only where geographic conditions forced travellers to use specific routes, such as mountain passes or ports along the English Channel. Instead, the checkpoints, where some form of control could be exercised, were cities, towns and ports. Their gates, in particular, were where guards asked travellers for their papers, names, destination and place of origin.

Travel documents commonly used in the sixteenth century included passports, health certificates and letters of recommendation. In some countries, such as England, the inhabitants also needed a leave of absence from the royal authorities to travel abroad.¹

The early modern passport was nothing like our modern equivalent. The term ‘passport’ originated in the French ‘passeport’, which literally means ‘to pass/enter/exit’ (passer, Latin: passus) ‘a port/door/gate’ (porte, Latin: portus). An early modern passport was not issued by a central government but by local or regional authorities and was restricted to a specific destination, route or region.

The passport was often no more than a sheet of paper or a letter containing the name and coat of arms of the issuing authority, the traveller’s name, the destination or region for which it was valid, and a seal or signature. Sometimes the document included a brief physical description of the traveller, mentioning age, height, build, hair colour and other prominent features. Kiechel mentioned passports fairly often in the journal. A passport with his physical description was issued while he was travelling in Italy (none of these documents has survived).

Depending on social status, the passport could also include provisions urging officials along the route to support travellers and guarantee their safety. Kiechel mentioned this during his stay in England.

The health certificate was similar to the passport in style and content. However, it also stated that the issuing city was free of the plague. In most of Europe, the health certificate was used in regions where an epidemic, such as the plague, had broken out. In Italy, where it had originated in the fourteenth century, it was commonly required of travellers. Samuel Kiechel mentioned using such a certificate when he travelled across the Alps from Vienna to Venice. He remarked that not only had the issuing authority in Vienna signed the document, but he was also required to obtain the signatures of the authorities in each place he spent the night.

A Venetian health certificate (fede di sanità) from 1611. In centralised administrations, such as Venice, the form was printed, and officials filled in only the name and date.

Neither the passport nor the health certificate compares with their modern equivalents. They could be manipulated or forged if a traveller did not wish to reveal their identity or obfuscate their route, place of origin or destination. A passport or health certificate was also not guaranteed to be accepted across a region. In particular, during times of war or plague, travellers could be barred from entering a city despite having the right travel documents.

Finally, the letter of recommendation was less a travel document than a statement of the holder’s integrity, good standing, social status and connections. Local lords, the nobility and municipal administrations usually issued them to their emissaries, friends and family and, for payment, to travellers. When personal identification was rudimentary and largely relied on a person’s honesty, a letter of recommendation could be more valuable than a passport. Samuel Kiechel mentioned a letter of recommendation only once. It helped him gain entry to a room in the palace in Kalmar, where he could watch the Swedish king and his family having dinner.

Roads and Transport

Most roads in sixteenth-century Europe had evolved for short-distance travel and transport between nearby towns and villages. No dedicated long-distance roads to faraway destinations existed. Travellers followed local routes piecemeal to reach their destinations. The towns and villages along the way were welcome places to buy provisions or stay overnight. The roads were mostly dirt tracks that turned to mud in wet weather. Paved, well-maintained roads existed, but only around large cities, because their construction and maintenance were expensive.

The choice of transport was limited. Wealthy travellers either brought their coach and horses or rented them. Everyone else travelled in the backs of carts, on mules or on foot. Along rivers, boats, barges and rafts were a welcome alternative. While this mode of travel was not the fastest, it was generally secure and relatively comfortable. With these limited transport options, reaching distant destinations quickly was impossible.⁶

But the sixteenth century also saw an important innovation that improved travel and communication. Major European powers had begun to develop a regular postal service to improve exchange between their far-ranging domains. The postal network was still in its infancy during Kiechel’s journey, and the routes connected only major political and economic centres. On some postal routes, coaches operated, but for the most part, travellers accompanied messengers on horseback, the fastest form of travel at the time.

Flexibility was key to early modern travel. In Scandinavia, sledges were the preferred mode of transport in winter; between the polders, canals and islands of the Dutch Republic, it was carts and boats. On the first part of his journey, from Ulm to Hamburg, Samuel Kiechel travelled on a raft down the Danube, used carts, private and postal coaches, and also walked quite often.

Horses

Horses were the most commonly used mode of transport throughout history, from pulling carts to carrying fully armoured knights. Until the invention of the steam train and motorised vehicles, they were the fastest form of land transport.

Naturally, horses played an important role for travellers. Not everyone could afford a horse, but those who could did so regularly. Horses could be bought along the route; they could be rented or included in an agreement with a local guide to accompany the traveller along a certain route. There was also the option of coercion or theft. A traveller needed some riding experience and skill, and at least basic knowledge of how to look after the animal, although stables in towns and cities would do this for a fee.

Buying a horse required financial means and some understanding of the animal’s physiology, as trickery and fraud were not uncommon. In addition, it left the traveller with the burden of caring for the horse and paying for stabling, fodder and maintenance of the riding equipment. But owning a horse allowed greater independence, as travellers could veer off the main roads to explore lesser-known places.

Renting a horse freed travellers from the responsibilities of caring for the animal. But it limited their choice of destination, as they had to stick to established routes. The distances for which horses could be rented were often relatively short, covering a day’s travel. However, renting a postal horse and riding along an established postal route meant the animal could be exchanged for a fresh horse at regular intervals, allowing very quick progress. For privately rented horses, travellers sometimes had to pay for the animal’s return.⁷

Stealing a horse was obviously dangerous, a criminal act with serious consequences. Besides the obvious method of sneaking into a stable or onto a pasture and leading a horse away, pressuring peasants to part with a horse also counted as theft. Apart from these illegal means, there was the legal way to sequester a horse in the name and service of a local ruler. While this approach was limited to diplomats and envoys, travellers could try to impersonate a royal messenger to trick someone into handing over a horse. They could also fall victim to this approach.

Samuel Kiechel bought and rented horses throughout his journey. Apparently, he knew how to ride, and occasional comments show that he had some knowledge of the animals. As a merchant’s son, he also had an eye for the value of a horse.

Sea Travel

Across the sea, a variety of large and small sailing ships were available. They were usually cargo vessels that also carried passengers for a fee. But the fee covered only transport. There was no service on board. Passengers had to provision themselves sufficiently for the sea voyage beforehand. Experienced travellers knew it was better to have too much food and drink than too little. Adverse winds, storms or sudden calms could significantly extend a journey, and no food was available for sale on board. Kiechel learned this lesson early in his journey.

Travelling across the sea meant cramped social and sanitary conditions and little privacy. Ship owners took as many passengers as they considered safe. On some ships, a few small, basic cabins were available for those who could afford them. But most passengers travelled in the hold and on the open deck. In cold or stormy weather, a sea journey quickly became dismal. It was not uncommon for passengers to succumb to conditions on board or to diseases that could easily break out where so many people lived close together.

Where to Stay and What to Eat

Travellers would be tired and hungry after a long day on the road. Upon reaching their destination, they would need to find a place to sleep and something to eat and drink.

First and foremost, arriving too late at a destination meant that a traveller had to spend the night outside the city walls. Most towns and cities in sixteenth-century Europe locked their gates at nightfall and did not reopen them until morning.

In the cities, the choice of accommodation was limited. Even popular destinations often lacked a selection of inns and guesthouses. The ideal option was, therefore, to stay with family or friends. Private accommodation was the most comfortable way to spend a few days in a city. Otherwise, travellers would typically stay in an inn. The quality of these inns varied, with rural and roadside inns being poorer than those found in cities. There was no way to book a room in advance, so if an inn was full, a traveller had to search for alternative lodging, which could mean sleeping in a stable on straw.

Many European inns featured only one heated room, a common area where guests spent most of their time eating, drinking, talking, or playing games. Inns usually lacked single rooms, requiring guests to share beds. While multiple bodies could provide warmth in the absence of proper heating, it also posed the risk of contracting diseases or encountering fleas and lice.

If a traveller needed to spend the night outside a town without an inn or tavern nearby, their best option was to knock on the doors of cottages and farmhouses. Villagers might offer accommodation for a few coins, but the conditions were primitive, with options to sleep on the floor or a bench. If the house had a barn or stable, travellers might be sent there. If no houses were nearby or villagers refused to open the door to strangers, the final choice was to spend the night in the open. Depending on the time of year, weather, and safety of the area, it could be a very uncomfortable and sleepless night.

The availability of food and drink for travellers depended on the region, season, location (village versus city), and the political and economic situation. In the sixteenth century, food preservation methods were limited, so travellers had to make do with what was available. Food was typically scarcer in late winter than in summer or autumn, and crop failures or political unrest could further reduce availability.

Water was generally not considered safe to drink. Hygienic conditions at the time meant it was often contaminated with germs and bacteria, and drinking it could cause dysentery and other unpleasant illnesses. A cautious traveller would add honey or vinegar to their water to kill bacteria, but alcohol was an even better option. In central and northern Europe, beer was the preferred drink, usually available in low-alcohol varieties that were safe for daily consumption. Even children drank it because it was healthier than water. In southern Europe, wine was often mixed with water for regular drinking.

Gender Differences in Travel

Finally, it is crucial to recognise the gender differences in travel during the sixteenth century. Women’s rights and freedoms were much more restricted than men’s at that time. While a journey could benefit men, it was often considered harmful for women. Women were expected to stay at home, fulfilling their roles as wives and mothers. If a woman did travel, it was usually to visit family, meet a potential husband, or move to a new residence. Women seldom travelled alone and typically were accompanied by a male guardian, such as a husband, father, or brother.